Professional Baseball in Chicago, a Shaky Start 

The road to respectability for Chicago baseball took a circuitous path. By definition during the mid 19^th century Chicago was a western city. In most matters, they played catch-up with the more-established and wealthy eastern cities – in politics, business and other endeavors. This was also true in baseball, a sport developed in the east. 

An important hub, Chicago started playing baseball by the formal rules developed in New York City relatively early in the genesis of the sport – even earlier than eastern cities like Baltimore and Washington, D.C. However because of its location, Chicago did not join the sport’s formal organization, the National Association of Base Ball Players, for years – not until 1867. 

Eighteen Sixty-Seven also happened to be the year professionalism started to proliferated through the business. Because of its willingness to compensate players, whether directly or indirectly, and because of the greater opportunities that could be found for ballplayers, eastern clubs fielded the best players. The west was again playing catch-up and had to tap that resource, lure the talent westward. 

The first club to do so was the Red Stockings of Cincinnati and they did to astonishing success – an incredible winning streak and coast to coast barnstorming tour that transformed the sport. Chicago wanted a piece of that success. Actually, they wanted an even greater triumph. 

In late 1869, the city sent agents east to lure some of the top talent. The process would be repeated as needed for much of the next decade. Several hiccups occurred along the way including a harsh local press, interfering shareholders and a ruinous fire that destroyed not only the White Stockings’ ballpark but led to the absence of a top professional team in the city for two seasons. The successes were high but fleeting. The 1870 and 1871 seasons were stellar but after two years of inactivity, the revamped club floundered in 1874 and 1875. 

The club president, William Hulbert, finally had enough of the eastern dominance and took matter into his own hands. He robbed the nation’s top club, Boston, of four of its top men, overthrew the existing organization, the National Association, and formed a new one, the National League. Chicago won the championship that first year and placed the city among the sport’s elite, a position it never relinquished. Baseball would forever feel the imprint of Chicago influences like executives Hulbert, Al Spalding, Rube Foster and Kenesaw Landis to name a few. 

THE EARLY YEARS 

Baseball developed in Chicago in the late 1850s much of the rest of the country. The first clubs included the Unions and Excelsiors. In 1858, steps were taken for the first time to organize the area clubs; at a local meeting, the National Association of Base Ball Players (NABBP) rules were adopted. 

Chicago’s main club, the Excelsiors, disbanded during the Civil War. They reorganized during the summer of 1865 and won the area’s top two tournaments the following year to capture the claim as the city’s best club. In 1867, four Chicago clubs joined the NABBP: Amateur; Atlantic; Eureka; Excelsiors. 

During that summer, the Nationals of Washington barnstormed through the west (the sport’s first western tour) and proved the superiority of the eastern teams. Their only loss occurred against a strong Rockford, Illinois club headed by young pitching sensation Albert Spalding, Ross Barnes and Bob Addy. The Excelsiors were humiliated 49-4. 

In total the Excelsiors posted a 10-1 record in NABBP competition in 1867. However, the ten victories all came against western teams. Chicago could not stand the second rate status western cities held in the nation, in politics, business and in baseball. It would drive the actions of local sportsmen for much of the next decade, culminating in dismantling of the eastern-dominated National Association and the formation of the National League in 1876. To emphasize their point, Chicago captured the first National League pennant. 

Professionalism started to take hold in baseball in 1867 and ’68. The Excelsiors officially maintained an amateur status, but like many clubs they compensated certain players either directly with cash or indirectly with high-paid employment during the week. Typically during this era, pitchers and catchers were the first to receive compensation. 

The Excelsiors disbanded in November 1868 amid heavy financial losses. Also, their players started jumping the club, seeking the cash offered by eastern clubs. Amateur clubs met with meager success in Chicago in 1868 and ’69. 

The sport’s first openly-declared professional squad, the Red Stockings of Cincinnati, dominated the baseball scene in 1869, both in the west and in the east. This impelled Chicago to do the same – amass a squad of the best talent available regardless of cost. Holding onto the amateur ideal surely wasn’t going to get Chicago what it so dearly craved, respect from and bragging rights over the east. 

THE TWO TOM FOLEYS

Tom Foley was born in Cashel, Ireland on August 16, 1842. In his mid to late teens he became a professional billiards player. He was well-known throughout Chicago and even throughout the country for his billiards play and facility management. In fact, he became one the city’s leading sportsmen, owning and operating the leading hangout of the time for sportsmen, a billiard hall named after himself. For the 1870 seaon, he served as the club’s business manager.

In 1866, Thomas James Foley joined the Excelsiors, captaining the club in 1867 and ’68. He was also the club vice president in 1867. He officially turned professional in 1869 when he joined the Forest Citys of Rockford, though it wouldn’t be surprising to learn that he was previously compensated by the Excelsiors. He continued with Rockford until joining the Chicago White Stockings with the formation of the National Association in 1871. He died of a stroke in January 1896 as one of the oldest and most respected letter carriers in the city, a job he held since May 1874.

Email correction by Richard Smiley:

It turns out that there were two Tom Foleys involved with Chicago baseball at that period of time. Remarkably, your two paragraphs split the two apart perfectly. Tom Foley #1 is the one in the photo and the first paragraph — billiards player, sportsman, and organizer of the original White Stockings. He later arranged a 50th Anniversary reunion of that team that led to the formation of an organization called the Old Timers Baseball Association of Chicago (OTBAC).   He died in November of 1926 with good newspaper coverage of his passing. (You can check the November 4, 1926 Chicago Tribune for a write-up.) He was buried in Evanston’s Calvary Cemetery. 
 
Tom Foley #2 is the one described in your second paragraph: a ballplayer with the Excelsiors, Rockford, and the White Stockings who became a letter carrier and died in the 1890’s. Although a case can be made that Tom Foley #1 is the more important figure, Tom Foley #2 is the one who gets the mention in Baseball-Reference.com and other player sites.  

The Foleys examined in depth here.

1870 

In the fall of 1869, 48 Chicago businessmen met and formed the Chicago Base Ball Association with the intention of developing a professional squad that could compete and defeat the best in the country, in the mode of the Red Stockings of Cincinnati. They wanted to not only show their superiority over eastern clubs but to supplant the Red Stockings as the dominant team in the west. 

Shares were sold at $25 a piece. Upwards of $20,000 was raised by this method. Honorary memberships were also accepted at $10 which gave the holder a season’s pass to the ballgames. Initial stockholders included (among others): 

• W.H. Anderson
• F.W. Budd
• J.W. Bute
• T.Z. Cowles
• Fred Erby
• C.B. Farwell
• David A. Gage
• J.M. Higgins
• William Lowe
• Samuel J. Medill
• Potter Palmer
• George Pullman
• Mathew Renner
• General Philip H. Sheridan
• W.W. Sprague
• F.H. Tanner
• S.W. Tanner
• George Treadway
• William F. Tucker
• N.C. Wentworth
• W. Frank Wentworth 

The initial officer list: 

• President, Palmer
• Vice President, Sheridan
• Vice President, Medill
• Recording Secretary, Erby
• Corresponding Secretary, Cowles
• Treasurer, Gage 

The officers though were fluid and may have changed with each meeting. By early 1870, the list included: 

• President, Gage
• Vice President, W. Frank Wentworth
• Secretary, Lowe
• Treasurer, Tucker
• Corresponding Secretary, Bute 

Perhaps more important, Tom Foley was selected as the team’s business manager overseeing day-to-day operations. Among his first efforts was to head east and sign players for the upcoming season, 1870. He went to Philadelphia and New York and did just that. He also placed an ad in the New York Clipper in hopes of attracting some top players. 

Foley’s efforts proved fruitful and soon the new nine was announced. It proved to be expensive. Catcher Bill Craver was signed for $2500 (Craver was actually signed much later – well into 1870). Captain and second baseman Jimmy Wood was paid $2000. Most of the others were paid between $1500 and $2000. Many of the players were taken from the Eckfords of Brooklyn, Unions of Lansingburgh, New York (Troy Haymakers) and Athletics of Philadelphia: 

• Pitcher – Ed Pinkham (Eckfords), Levi Meyerle (Athletics)
• Catcher – Craver, Charles Hodes (Eckfords)
• First base – Bub McAtee (Unions)
• Second base – Wood (Eckfords)
• Third base – Meyerle
• Shortstop – Ed Duffy
• Outfield – Ned Cuthbert (Athletics), Fred Treacey (Eckfords), Clipper Flynn (Unions)
• Utility – Mart King (Unions) 

Thus the club became Chicago’s first professional nine. (Pinkham was a lefthanded pitcher.) 

The club then joined the NABBP and sought a playing ground. A park was erected inside the oval of a race track at Dexter Park. A grandstand was built around the field and with the existing seating for racing the capacity was upwards of 30,000. 

Email note from Richard Smiley:

According to the May 27, 1870 Chicago Tribune write-up of the park’s logistics, the seating capacity was about 12,000 … not 30,000. The promoters were guessing that if necessary, they could fit in up to 30,000 people by having people stand or by having them use race course seats that were a good distance away from the playing field. That 30,000 figure is debatable.

After two games against Chicago teams beginning on April 21, the club headed south for a series of games because their ballpark was still under construction. The southern swing saw them take the field in St. Louis, Algiers, Louisiana, New Orleans and Memphis before returning home for the first home game on May 21. 

The Chicagos gained their nickname by the time they took the field in St. Louis. They became known as the White Stockings in the same fashion as the Red Stockings of Cincinnati gained their moniker – the color of their hose. 

Cleveland Herald May 2, 1870 

It’s interesting to note that captain Jimmy Wood was entrusted with the selection of the team’s uniform design and colors. 

The White Stockings proved to be a strong nine; in fact, they won every contest through July 2, thirty-one of them – albeit most of their opponents were second rate. The players, the city or team management or perhaps all three began to crow about their great ball club. Consequently, more than once the White Stockings were referred in print as “blow hards.” This prompted many to root for their failure. 

In mid June, the White Stockings took off for an extended tour which saw them play strong squads from Cleveland, Buffalo, Rochester, Syracuse, Troy, Boston, New York, Philadelphia, Baltimore and D.C. through early August. They defeated the Eckfords and Unions, the clubs they decimated by signing their top players, but lost to the toughest eastern nines: Atlantics of Brooklyn; Mutuals of New York, twice; Athletics of Philadelphia, twice. They even dropped a game to Harvard and lost another to the Unions. 

In the eyes of the Chicago press, the tour proved disastrous. Local sportswriters proved extremely critical and eastern ones condescending, especially after the White Stockings were shutout by the Mutuals on July 23, 9-0. Reeling from the criticism, club stockholders began meddling in day-to-day affairs – further complicating matters and hindering management affairs. The team also stood $3000 in debt by mid August. 

A meeting in mid August resulted in the reorganization of the club: 

• President, Norman T. Gassette
• Vice president, W. Frank Wentworth
• Recording secretary, Fred Erby
• Corresponding secretary, J.M. Thatcher
• Treasurer, Beryl 

Gassette demanded autonomy for himself and gave Jimmy Wood and Tom Foley control over day-to-day affairs without constant interference. The club president also immediately dismissed Bill Craver over gambling and game-fixing charges. (Craver would be expelled by the National League in 1877 in related charges) 

The White Stockings finished the season strong, arguably making them the best team in the country at season’s end. Henry Chadwick, as he was wont to do, claimed a piece of the success for himself by declaring that the club’s fortunes turned around only after he gave Jimmy Wood a piece of advice – adopt a deader ball. 

Dead ball or not, the White Stocking only lost once after August 5. The Sox even pulled off some impressive road wins over the Atlantics, Athletics, Mutuals, Eckfords and Red Stockings. After topping the Red Stockings in Cincinnati 10-6 on September 7, the White Stockings were greeted as conquering heroes at the train station by 3000 fans upon their return home. 

On October 13, twenty thousand fans attended the rematch with the Red Stockings at spacious Dexter Park. It was the biggest crowd in baseball history to that point. The White Stockings won again, 16-13. In total, Chicago finished with a 65-8 record and an extremely strong final half. Not even having the Mutuals storm off the field in protest in the ninth inning of the final game of the season on November 1 could dampen the club’s pride in their success. 

NORMAN T. GASSETTE 

Norman Gassette was born in Townsend, Vermont on April 21, 1839, moving to Chicago at age ten. He served in the 19^th Illinois Volunteer Infantry during the Civil War under General John B. Turchin. The company had a ball team – known as the Turchin Base Ball Club – but it’s not known if Gassette participated. He mustered out as the 19^th disbanded in July 1864. 

In 1866, Gassette graduated from the law school at Chicago University. He became involved in local Republican politics and amassed a fortune as many politicians did in the mid 19^th century – on the public graft. He left the County Clerk’s position in 1872 having amassed over $300,000 in wealth, mostly from fees charged by those wishing to register deeds in the city and Cook County. 

He retired in 1872 with extensive holdings in real estate, government bonds and various other investments and business interests. That year, he became for many years the Chairman of the Republican Executive Committee in Chicago. He was also involved in upper management of the Masons for two decades prior to his death in March 1891. His estate was worth over $1 million. 

(See a forthcoming biography of Gassette by Richard Smiley at the SABR Biography Project. He was kind enough to provide me with a draft of the upcoming piece.) 

1871 

Over the winter, Gassette spent $4000 of his own money to cover payroll costs and to sign new players for the club. He also paid for an eastern trip by Foley and Thatcher to lure new talent. In a subsequent interview in March 1871, he promised to put even more of his money into the team.

Among those they pursued over the winter but failed to land were Bob Ferguson, Joe Start and Candy Cummings.

In January 1871, Gassette demanded even greater autonomy running the club. Among his efforts, he moved to have certain shareholders who were delinquent in their financial responsibilities to the club either pay up or be removed. Soon thereafter, the club was incorporated. 

The professional National Association was formed in March 1871, after a rift between amateurs and pros brought down the NABBP. The White Stockings immediately joined the pro circuit, the predecessor of the National League. 

Also in March, the city council granted the team use of a plot of land on the lake front. Dexter Park was poorly located, too far from the inner-city. The new property was in poor shape with piles of debris and trash littering it. At a cost of $5000, a 7500-seat facility was erected – the first enclosed baseball-dedicated park in Chicago – known as White Stockings Ground. The site would later house Lakefront Park (1878). The limited space allotted created quirky dimensions, which in 1871 included a short right field wall. 

The White Stockings of 1871 featured holdovers King, McAtee, Treacey, Wood and Duffy. Wood and Tom Foley continued to run day-to-day affairs. Joe Simmons, a former local Excelsior player, was obtained from Rockford and George Zettlein, a top eastern pitcher, was added from the Atlantics of Brooklyn. 

The White Stockings were one of the top clubs in the National Association, among the leaders all season long. Their last home game occurred on October 7, at which time they stood tied with Philadelphia for the best winning percentage, .720 (18-7), in official league contests. However, by rules Boston was leading the circuit with 20 victories (.667). After returning from a hard-fought eastern trip and a win over the Mutuals in early October, Gassette rewarded the men with expensive gifts – including a home for pitcher Zettlein. 

On October 8, fire began to rip through Chicago; it raged for three days. The White Stockings’ ballpark was destroyed on the 9^th. The team’s adjoining business offices were also destroyed. In all, they lost their uniforms, equipment, record books, receipts and on-hand cash. Some of the players lost their homes and the banks with their accounts were destroyed as well. (Rockford traveled to Chicago on the 9^th for a contest but upon seeing the fires raging turned around for home. Because of fire-related difficulties, Rockford disbanded at the end of the year.) (The lake front plot became a stacking point for debris from the fire until Lakefront Park I was erected in 1878.) 

Soon after the fire, the White Stockings formally released all their players but the men regrouped in the east to play some contests – three of which counted in the league standings. The men had to borrow uniforms and equipment where possible and accepted donations to help pay traveling and lodging expenses. For example, during the championship game, some White Stocking players were clad in old (supposedly ratty) Mutual, Eckford and Boston uniforms. Some wore dress black hats, some baseball caps, others no hats. Some uniforms were a combination of different teams. One player donned the attire of a club known as the Flyaways. 

They split two games with Troy which brought a meeting with Philadelphia at the Union Grounds in Brooklyn on October 30 for the acknowledged championship of the United States. The winner would take the National Association pennant. If Chicago won, they would both have a 20-8 record but Chicago would then have a 3-2 head-to-head advantage. Philadelphia was already tied with Boston for the most victories at 20. 

Two thousand showed for the contest included a fair share of Chicagoans and Philadelphians. Philly won 4-1 to settle the matter. The White Stockings franchise was not destitute as has traditionally been claimed. In November, it rewarded captain Jimmy Wood with a $500 bonus for his fine efforts. The club nonetheless disbanded and the players signed with other clubs. 

1872 

The Chicago players split up for 1872 with Wood taking a handful to Troy with him – Hodges, King, McAtee and Zettlein. Wood got the Chicago area going in the early part of the year by declaring that he would bring his club to Chicago to play other National Association clubs if the city secured adequate playing facilities. 

In April, Gassette and fifty others formed the Chicago Base Ball Association with the intention of building suitable grounds and enticing the top clubs to play contests in Chicago. An underlying goal was to eventually build a top level club once again for Chicago. 

The 23^rd Street Grounds was opened at the end of May for a cost between $3000 and $4000. Gassette resigned in June and the presidency passed at various times to George W. Gage and W. Frank Wentworth. William A. Hulbert became a club director in July, his first official position with the club – (though naturally the club didn’t yet exist in 1872). 

Baltimore, Cleveland, New York, Philadelphia and Troy made the trip during the summer to play at the new ballpark. The project proved profitable, ending the year about $400 in the black. 

(Foley ran a local semi-pro outfit in 1872 and ’73 with limited success.) 

GEORGE W. GAGE 

George Gage was born on March 9, 1812 in Pelham, New Hampshire. With his brother David, he became wealthy in the hotel business. They owned some of the top hotels in the west, after first getting into the business with the City Hotel in Boston. In 1853, the Gages moved to Chicago. There, they ran two of the most successful hotels in the area, the Tremont House and Sherman House. The Sherman fell in the fire of 1871 and the brothers took over the Gault House and then the Grand Pacific Hotel. 

George Gage was a member of the Cook County House of Representatives and was the Republican candidate for mayor in 1869. That year, he became the South Park commissioner, a position he held until his death in September 1875. Gage Park, which still exists today, was later erected in his honor. 

1873 

Despite its profitability, an effort was made to kill the Chicago Base Ball Association in early 1873. In January, William Hulbert sat in the chair overseeing his first meeting relating to Chicago baseball. 

The association’s secretary never acted on the dismantling of the organization and it was revived in July, once again under the control of Norman Gassette. George Gage and Hulbert also maintained positions in the organization. 

In mid August, the Boston Red Stockings and Philadelphia White Stockings arrived in Chicago to play a match on the 16th, giving a big shot in the arm to Chicago baseball prospects. The game featured some of the top names in the country from the Boston squad and brought back several local favorites including Jimmy Wood, George Zettlein, Ned Cuthbert, Fred Treacey and Levi Meyerle. 

That month, Gassette personally headed to the east coast to amass a nine for 1874. He was aided by the influential Wood. The effort proved successful and an announcement was soon made. 

1874 

On August 15, 1873, Gassette announced success at forming a new White Stockings club for 1874. The timing was no coincidence – Wood was in town with his team for an exhibition game. 

The 1874 version of the White Stockings would include such familiar names as Jim Devlin, Davy Force and Paul Hines. Former Chicago players Jimmy Wood, Ned Cuthbert, Levi Meyerle, George Zettlein and Fred Treacey were also inked. The team rented the 23^rd Street grounds. 

Wood was slated to captain the club once again but he injured himself trying to lance an abscess on his left leg. The knife slipped and he put a gash in his right leg; it became infected and necessitated an amputation. He returned in August as field manager for the club’s final 23 games. 

Chicago Tribune 7/11/1874 

The 1874 and ’75 White Stockings were second division clubs. The Chicago press was especially hard on the club in June 1874 for sloppy play. Game-fixing was also alleged, unfoundedly. 

Chicago Tribune 6/19/1874 

The loss to the Mutuals by a score of 37-1 was particularly galling: 

Chicago Tribune 6/19/1874 

In August, Gassette stepped down, permanently severing his formal relationship with the club. Sloppy play or not, the club’s finances were healthy. The White Stockings ran in the black during Gassette’s terms. Whether the team was profitable or not is left to question. He often doled cash out of his own pocket to cover administrative expenses and payroll.

George Gage was elected president and William Hulbert assumed the day-to-day management of the club, a responsibility he would maintain until his death in April 1882. At the same meeting, Wood’s contract was renewed through 1875. 

The White Stockings finished in fifth place with a 28-31 record. Davy Force’s contract became an issue over the winter. He first re-signed with Chicago and then inked a deal with Philadelphia. At first, the National Association awarded the player to Chicago but after a Philadelphia president was installed matters reversed: 

Chicago Tribune 4/16/1875 

Hulbert became irate and felt cheated with good cause. His inherent distrust of easterners was further fueled by this incident (though in truth the White Stockings had repeatedly taken players from eastern clubs) and directly led to his tampering actions a few months later and ultimately to the forming of the National League in early 1876. 

WILLIAM A. HULBERT 

William Hulbert was born in October 1832 in Burlington Flats, New York. His family relocated to Chicago when he was two years old. He married the daughter of his employer, eventually taking over the company and expanding the business line. He also held a prestigious and influential position on the Chicago Board of Trade. 

Hulbert was a big guy, loud and obese in the opinion of at least one sportswriter. Though George Gage was the nominal head of the Chicago White Stockings in the latter part of 1874 through his death in September 1875, Hulbert was the visible management of the club and, as such, was referred to as (and probably assumed to be) the club’s president by sportswriters. In a meeting on October 10, 1875, Hulbert presented a proxy from Gage’s widow and formally took over the position. 

1875 

Eighteen Seventy-Five was another good year financially for the White Stockings, though a disappointment in the standings. 

The National Association had numerous troubles including gambling, game-fixing, excessive revolving (jumping clubs) and the dominance of the Boston club which copped each pennant from 1872 to 1875. Financial instability also plagued the league stemming from: too many clubs; small market clubs; expensive trips between the east and west; multiple unstable clubs in Philadelphia. 

William Hulbert added to the troubles and made a bold move, pulling an old Chicago trick – luring players from eastern clubs. During the season in June, he signed the crux of the Boston franchise, the league’s best team, for the 1876 Chicago White Stockings: Al Spalding, Cal McVey, Deacon White and Ross Barnes. Spalding was the key component. Hulbert liked the fact that he was originally a western player and intelligent to boot. When Hulbert assumed the club presidency, Spalding was made an officer as well, secretary. On June 26, Spalding in turn recruited Philadelphia players Cap Anson and Ezra Sutton for the same purpose; though, Sutton later reneged. 

(For the loss of Force, Hulbert extracted from Philly Anson who proved to be perhaps the premier ballplayer of the century.) 

The 1876 club would have a great deal of talent and experience: 

Chicago Tribune 10/24/1875 

 

There were concerns over the winter that the new Chicago players could be facing expulsion from the National Association. In order to prevent this and usurp eastern control, Hulbert organized several western clubs and set to form a new league, the National League. With the western clubs on board, he approached the eastern owners in February 1876. An olive branch was extended with the offering of the presidency to an eastern owner, Morgan Bulkeley of Hartford. However, it was clear to all that Hulbert was the impetus behind the new endeavor. Baseball’s oldest league kicked off two months later. 

Chicago Tribune 2/13/1876 

Hulbert’s efforts paid immediate dividends as the White Stockings took the National League’s first pennant. 

SOURCE LIST 

• Baseballchronology.com 
• Baseballlibrary.com 
• Chicago Daily Inter Ocean, 1874-1875 
• Chicagoparkdistrict.com 
• Chicago Tribune, 1867-1891 
• Cleveland Herald, 1870 
• Familysearch.com 
• Gold, Eddie, “Hall would be Home for Hulbert,” Baseball Research Journal, Cleveland: Society for American Baseball Research, 1973. 
• Hartford Courant, 1871 
• Ivor-Campbell, Frederick, Robert L. Tiemann and Mark Rucker. Baseball’s First Stars. Cleveland: The Society for American Baseball Research, 1996. 
• New York Clipper, 1870 
• New York Sun, 1869 
• New York World, 1874 
• Milwaukee Sentinel, 1870 
• Ohio Democrat, New Philadelphia, 1870 
• Ohio City Derrick, Pennsylvania, 1870 
• Petermorrisbooks.com 
• Retrosheet.org 
• Schiff, Andrew J. The Father of Baseball: A Biography of Henry Chadwick. Jefferson, North Carolina: McFarland & Company, 2008. 
• Smiley, Richard A., “The Life and Times of Norman T. Gassette,” prepared for SABR Nineteenth Century Committee conference, April 18, 2009 
• Sporting Life, October 28, 1885 
• Tiemann, Robert L. and Mark Rucker. Nineteenth Century Stars. Cleveland: Society for American Baseball Research, 1989. 
• Titusville Herald, Pennsylvania, 1871 
• Wikipedia.org 
• Wisconsin State Journal, Madison, 1870 
• Wright, Marshall D. The National Association of Base Ball Players, 1857-1870. Jefferson, NC: McFarland & Company, 2000.